The Kelp Chronicles
by
Ishan Juluri
a couple of chapters for your reading pleasure
Chapter 1
Introduction
As a kid interested in biology in Northern California, there was only one place in the world which I would visit religiously. That place being Monterey Bay Aquarium, the Mecca of Marine Biology. The biggest draw of the aquarium was the kelp forest exhibit. A massive forty foot tall recreation of a kelp forest. Everytime I would go to the aquarium, I would sit and watch the schools of anchovies swirling around the stipes of the kelp, the leopard sharks weaving through the fronds. Afterwards, I would head towards the “Tentacles” exhibit. Now, in this exhibit there was a display of flamboyant cuttlefish. Interestingly enough, my dad and I formed a connection with two of the cuttlefish. I know that they were the same because of their behavior. The one my dad connected with was the biggest one there. It was a gentle giant, floating serenely in the middle of the tank. When it was feeding time, it would drift lazily towards the nearest piece of food, snapping it up in his tentacles. The one I connected with was the polar opposite. It was the smallest one in the tank, yet the most aggressive. It would often dig a little hole in the sand at the edge of the tank, and change its skin color and texture to match the sand. However, come feeding time, it would dart out, chasing down the chunks of food recklessly. All of this got me thinking, if something this small, could be so reckless and so impactful to the behavior of the tank, what else that I considered so tame had such a massive impact on our world. The answer is kelp. Kelp is ubiquitous with the Pacific Coast. Vast swathes of it line our shores, providing habitats for millions of organisms, and creating some of the richest fisheries in the world. However, kelp has another extremely important role in the environment: it sequesters a massive amount of carbon dioxide. Seaweed around the world sequesters over 200 million tons of Carbon Dioxide each year. Kelp sequesters about 40% of the total amount of carbon sequestered by seaweed. Additionally, kelp forests can sequester about 20 times the amount of carbon as terrestrial forests. Kelp forests are not “carbon positive”, meaning that they do not release carbon dioxide at any point in their existence. Due to the nitrifying bacteria and other microorganisms, for the first twenty years of a land forest’s existence, the bacteria will release carbon dioxide, which is not countered by the carbon absorbed by the trees. For kelp, carbon sequestration takes place instantly. Once the “plant” starts growing, the carbon gets absorbed, which is then used to grow the “plant” more, thus leading to even more carbon sequestered. There are currently 8 billion human beings on Earth. In 300,000 years, we have created sprawling metropolises, massive pillars of glass and steel that scrape the sky, and chains of light visible from space. We have altered ecosystems, caused species to adapt, and driven many to extinction. We have saved thousands of species from extinction. From the smallest bug, to the largest whales, our recent actions have helped them. But what if I told you, 74,000 years ago, nature saved us. Common consensus among scientists is that 74,000 years ago, a massive supervolcano erupted. This eruption formed the current day Lake Toba in Sumatra. It also sent 2,800 cubic kilometers of ash, dust, and rock into the atmosphere. Additionally, scientists estimate that 1.7 billion tonnes of sulfur dioxide were sent into the atmosphere. The amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere lowered global temperatures by around three and a half degrees celsius. Additionally, all that rock and dust fell across the Indian subcontinent, the Indo-Pacific Region, and most importantly, across eastern Africa. At this time, humanity was still living in the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa. The ash, dust, and other debris completely destroyed these ecosystems, causing widespread ecological destruction. Ancient humanity starved as their food sources were wiped out. At the peak of this apocalyptic winter, only some 15,000 humans remained. Miraculously, we are still alive. A small population of about 1,500 humans made the perilous trek to South Africa. Here they discovered a land relatively untouched, where nutritious tubers grew mere miles away from one of the richest ecosystems in the world. There, towering skyscrapers of kelp sway in the current; their leafy fronds glowing slightly in the diffused light. When people talk about rich marine ecosystems, I, being a proud Californian, think about Monterey Bay. My cousins in Alaska mention the waters of the Bering Sea. My friend in North Carolina mentions the coast of Maine. But no one mentions the waters off of South Africa. The Cape of Good Hope has the second largest population of breeding great white sharks after Monterey Bay. It has the world’s largest wild kelp forest, and some of the best fisheries for crabs, mussels, and clams. It was this bounty of seafood that helped us become what we are. What we must understand is that the ocean is one of the richest sources of nutrients in the world. Billions of years worth of sediment are layered on the seafloor, with a multitude of important trace elements drifting in the water column. These include heavy metals such as mercury, potassium, bromine, and iodine. When people talk about nutrient build up in marine organisms, the most emphasized one is mercury. Mercury is toxic, but that doesn’t mean it's the most noteworthy element in marine organisms. That award would go to iodine. Iodine is one of the most important elements for the development of the human body. It controls brain development, formation of bones and marrow, formation of neurotransmitters, and development of gray matter. In addition, hormones produced in the thyroid in the presence of iodine significantly increase nutrient uptake. So, as we can see, iodine is quite important to the development of the human body. Additionally, iodine can increase the development of the fetus, greatly increasing its chance of survival. The ready access to iodine greatly changed the way our ancestors approached life. Iodine increases the organization of the brain, creating more efficient pathways which can increase intelligence. Scientists believe that the consumption of kelp, which has quite a lot of iodine, allowed for the harnessing of fire. Experts theorize that humanity, witnessing that lightning started a fire , was able to “feed” fires, keeping them alive for generations. It is unlikely that humanity would’ve been able to see that fire could be controlled if we hadn’t had copious amounts of iodine to develop our brains. It is highly possible that the increasingly developed human brain finally figured out that fire could be fed with wood, and corralled by a lack of wood. The harnessing of fire helped us get more calories and more nutrients from the animals we hunted. This, combined with the production of hormones in the thyroid, significantly increased the maturation rate of this population of humans. Additionally, it may have also allowed for the beginning of what we would call art to occur. As with the fire example, scientists believe that the development of our brains that was fueled by kelp helped us recognize patterns, and thus, allowed us to start painting. Additionally, some scientists believe that kelp may have helped kickstart the agricultural revolution, by prompting humans to realize that plants can be regrown. This, again, can be attributed to increased development in the brain. During this time period, scientists noticed that tubers were popping up closer to cave entrances where humans lived. This could be some form of pseudo-agriculture, with our ancestors planting some of their leftovers close to their houses. Whatever may have happened, it suffices to say that kelp propelled us forward massively in our development.
Chapter 2
Toba Supervolcano
There are currently 8 billion humans on Earth. It’s hard to imagine an Earth without us. Humanity has had a massive impact on this planet. Massive structures of steel and glass that scrape the sky. Huge swathes of artificial light that illuminate our planet from space. Massive fires caused by careless disposal of waste. We have altered ecosystems, caused species to adapt, and driven many to extinction. We have saved thousands of species from extinction, from the smallest bug, to the largest whales. Humanity’s impacts cannot be understated. But what if I was to tell you that approximately 74,000 years ago, there were less than 10,000 humans left on Earth. We were on the verge of extinction, and nature saved us. The Toba supervolcano, now a lake of the same name, erupted and spread a layer of volcanic ash 15 centimeters thick across the Indian subcontinent, East Africa, South China Sea, and Indopacific region. Volcanic ash in the atmosphere prevented 75-90% of normal light levels from reaching the surface of Earth. Scientists estimate that 1.7 billion tonnes of sulfur dioxide were sent into the atmosphere. The amount of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere lowered global temperatures by around three and a half degrees celsius. This severely impacted the productivity of environments across humanity’s range. As plants died, many of the animals humans relied on for food, clothing, and tools died as well. Ancient humans starved, with populations in central Africa, the current day Arabian Peninsula, and the Horn of Africa dying out. However, a small population, by some estimates as few as 1,500 humans, managed to make their way to the coastline of South Africa. Here they discovered a land relatively untouched, where nutritious tubers grew mere miles away from one of the richest ecosystems in the world. There, towering skyscrapers of kelp swayed in the current; their leafy fronds glowing slightly in the diffused light. When people talk about rich marine ecosystems, I, being a proud Californian, think about Monterey Bay. My cousins in Alaska mention the waters of the Bering Sea. My friend in North Carolina mentions the coast of Maine. But no one mentions the waters off of South Africa. The Cape of Good Hope has the second largest population of breeding great white sharks after Monterey Bay. It has the world’s largest wild kelp forest, and some of the best fisheries for crabs, mussels, and clams. It was this bounty of seafood that helped us become what we are. What we must understand is that the ocean is one of the richest sources of nutrients in the world. Billions of years worth of sediment are layered on the seafloor, with a multitude of important trace elements drifting in the water column. These include heavy metals such as mercury, potassium, bromine, and iodine. These nutrients helped sustain the coastal environment through that supervolcanic eruption, thus ensuring our ancestors’ survival. In fact, the nutrient rich lands and water off of South Africa might have led to human development as it is now. When people talk about nutrient build up in marine organisms, the most emphasized one is mercury. Mercury is toxic, but that doesn’t mean it's the most noteworthy element in marine organisms. That award would go to iodine. Iodine is one of the most important elements for the development of the human body. It controls brain development, formation of bones and marrow, formation of neurotransmitters, and development of gray matter. Hormones produced in the thyroid in the presence of iodine significantly increase nutrient uptake. Iodine is so important to animals, that chimpanzees, orangutans, and gorillas have been documented “fishing” for seaweed to slake their need. Iodine can advance the development of the fetus, greatly increasing its chance of survival. The ready access to iodine greatly changed the way our ancestors approached life. Iodine also helps create more efficient pathways in the brain which can increase intelligence. Some researchers theorized that the consumption of seafood high in iodine concentration helped kickstart the formation of the modern human brain. Iodine is needed by the thyroid gland to form T3 and T4 hormones. These hormones play an essential part in both the development of the human body and the production of neurotransmitters. Additionally, T3 and T4 are necessary for proper development of the bone marrow and bone structure. According to research done by the NIH, T3 and T4 regulate gene expression, particularly genes relating to neuronal development. Higher amounts of T3 and T4 hormones are directly correlated to increased brain development in infants and fetuses, improved memory recollection, and improved problem-solving skills. It is highly possible that the increasingly developed human brain finally figured out that fire could be managed by the skillful application of wood and kindling. The harnessing of fire allowed for another key step in the advancement of human society: cooking! When we cook something, we break down the complex molecules, making it easier for our bodies to absorb nutrients. In addition, cooking can make eating easier. Cooking helps make food, especially meat, more tender. This allowed our ancestors to consume more calories from the animals they were hunting. Combined with the production of hormones in the thyroid, this significantly increased the maturation rate of this population of humans. Scientists also believe that our kelp-fueled brains may have begun to recognize patterns and develop art, and realize that plants can be cultivated. During this time period, scientists noticed that tubers were popping up closer to cave entrances where humans lived. This could have been some form of pseudo-agriculture, with our ancestors planting some of their leftovers close to their houses. Whatever may have happened, it suffices to say that kelp propelled us forward massively in our development.
Chapter 3
The Kelp Highway
Stretching from the Ryuku Islands in Japan to Baja California, the kelp highway was an area of coastal water teeming with ocean life, providing a “path” for ancient humans to follow. As our ancestors followed this path, they scooped up fish, kelp fronds, and a variety of other food items. Ancient humans followed this trail across the Bering Sea to modern day Vancouver. From there, they traveled southwards, settling in the Pacific Northwest of the U.S. and splitting into the Salish, Samish, and Klallam peoples. These groups all remain part of the Coast Salish language group. The thing that most highlights this is the similarities in the culture surrounding kelp. Coast Salish myths focus on the marriage of a girl and a god of the sea to save her people. The girl was unable to ever visit her family, and slowly turned into a strand of bull kelp, with her hair waving in the current. During periods of starvation, her “hair” would save her people from starvation. The kelp fronds also represented the connection between the surface world and the underwater world. In some groups of Klallam, the myth has changed slightly, with the kelp representing both a blessing and a curse. This was said to be the maligned spirit of her husband influencing her. This retelling of the myth was due to the location that the Klallam found themselves in. Many of them lived on the coast of Canada and Washington state, enduring vicious storms. During these storms, kelp could often tangle in boats, causing them to capsize. Kelp was seen as both a boon and a curse. As a boon, it provided Native Americans with a source of food, habitat for prey animals, and material for fish hooks, bows, rope, harpoons, and baskets. However, this source of food and crafting materials was also a peril to these natives. Storms are incredibly common along the Pacific Northwest, with these storms sometimes kicking up waves up to 50 feet tall. This rapid movement of water would rapidly shift kelp, getting it tangled in oars, rudders, and canoes. Many a native was dragged underwater and drowned. While kelp played an essential part in Native American culture, another group would take their dependence on kelp to a whole new level.
Chapter 4
Norse Culture
When Vikings are mentioned, people usually think of tall, muscular, bearded men pillaging whatever they could find. While that is indeed a major part of Viking history, that is not all they did. In fact, they did quite the opposite. Vikings were explorers, traders, farmers, and artists. The quintessential longship was more often used to transport trade goods and traders across large swaths of ocean and up rivers. In order to keep these people alive, the Vikings got really good at drying out foods. One of the most essential of these items was dried kelp and seaweed. Dried kelp and seaweed, known as sǫl, is still consumed in Scandinavia. It's rich in nutrients, easy to store, and easy to prepare. Additionally, it has significant cultural value. It is said that sǫl saved the life of 10th century viking poet Egill Skallagrimson. Reportedly, Egill had been troubled by visions of disasters throughout his life. When his son died, he fell into a deep depression. In the end, he nearly died of hunger. His daughter, distraught at the sight of her emaciated father, fed him sǫl, claiming it was a poison that would end his life. However, it was so nutritious that it revitalized his spirit. After he came to, he ordered his next longship to be provisioned with mead and sǫl. Afterwards, sǫl became an intrinsic part of both Norse culture and modern Scandinavian culture. It was a cheap and nutritious food, suited for harsh journeys. It could be prepared easily, and it grew year round. Many Viking villages relied on kelp as their primary source of food during the last few months of winter. Now, sǫl is a snack food in Scandinavia. It’s primarily consumed with beer during the latter parts of the day, in a manner similar to tea and crumpets in British culture. However, there is a darker side to kelp in Norse culture, where it is seen as a portent of death and destruction. Kelp is not just a harmless macroalgae waving in the current; it is a symbol of the draugr. Draugr are the Norse equivalent to zombies; ancient kings and warriors who walk the world, jealously guarding their tombs and the treasures within. In some myths, they are animated by vindictive sea gods, and thus have more oceanic bodies: kelp for hair, algae covered bones, etc. These particular Draugr were reputed to have extreme strength and bloated bodies, and were often said to pull entire longships down into the watery depths. It was said that during Ragnarok, the draugr would rise up out of the water and drown many brave warriors. After Ragnarok, the world would be submerged until it would be lifted up by the surviving gods and repopulated by two surviving humans. However, kelp to the Vikings was not just a foreboding image of the end of the world or a necessary food source. It was a major reason for Viking success. Navigation in the old world was hard. If a fog set in, Viking ships would follow kelp, similar to how some scientists believe a kelp highway helped Ancient Humans expand from Asia.
Chapter 6
Human Impact Part 1
Kelp forests, often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea," are among the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. They provide habitat and food for a diverse array of marine life, contribute to carbon sequestration, and protect coastlines from erosion. While these vital ecosystems face numerous threats, humans have also played a positive role in their preservation and restoration. This chapter explores various ways in which human actions have positively impacted kelp forests, highlighting conservation efforts, sustainable harvesting practices, and scientific advancements. One of the most significant ways humans have positively impacted kelp forests is through the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). MPAs are designated regions where human activities are regulated to conserve the natural environment. These protected areas help to safeguard kelp forests from overfishing, pollution, and destructive practices. By restricting activities such as bottom trawling, which can damage the kelp holdfasts, MPAs create a safer environment for kelp and the myriad species that depend on it. In addition to MPAs, various conservation organizations and government agencies have implemented policies specifically aimed at preserving kelp forests. For example, regulations on nutrient runoff from agriculture and sewage treatment have been enforced to reduce coastal eutrophication, which can lead to harmful algal blooms that outcompete kelp. These policies, combined with public awareness campaigns, have significantly contributed to the health and resilience of kelp ecosystems. Kelp is harvested for various purposes, including food, fertilizers, and biofuels. However, unsustainable harvesting can deplete kelp populations and disrupt marine ecosystems. Recognizing this, many communities and industries have adopted sustainable harvesting practices to ensure the long-term viability of kelp forests. Sustainable harvesting involves careful management of kelp resources, including rotational harvesting, where only a portion of a kelp forest is harvested at a time, allowing for regrowth and regeneration. Additionally, harvesters often cut kelp above the holdfast, ensuring that the plant can continue to grow and contribute to the ecosystem. By implementing these practices, humans can utilize kelp resources while maintaining the ecological balance of kelp forests. Restoration projects have become increasingly important in efforts to combat the decline of kelp forests. These projects often involve replanting kelp in areas where it has been depleted due to human activities or natural events. Scientists and conservationists collect kelp spores or young kelp plants from healthy populations and transplant them to degraded areas. This process, known as outplanting, can help to re-establish kelp forests and promote biodiversity. One notable example of successful kelp restoration is the work done by the Bay Foundation in California. Their efforts have led to the restoration of over 50 acres of kelp forests, resulting in increased biodiversity and improved water quality. Such projects not only restore kelp habitats but also engage local communities in conservation efforts, fostering a sense of stewardship and responsibility for marine ecosystems. Advancements in marine science and technology have significantly contributed to the understanding and preservation of kelp forests. Research on kelp biology, ecology, and the impacts of climate change has provided valuable insights into the factors affecting kelp health and growth. This knowledge has informed conservation strategies and management practices, making them more effective and targeted. For example, scientists have developed methods to cultivate kelp in controlled environments, allowing for the study of its growth patterns and responses to various stressors. This research has led to the development of more resilient kelp strains that can better withstand changing ocean conditions, such as warming temperatures. While kelp forests face numerous challenges, human actions have also had a positive impact on their preservation and restoration. Through the establishment of marine protected areas, sustainable harvesting practices, restoration projects, and scientific research,humans have played a crucial role in safeguarding these vital ecosystems. As awareness and understanding of the importance of kelp forests continue to grow, it is essential to build on these positive efforts to ensure the long-term health and resilience of kelp ecosystems for future generations.